Socket is the physical slot for a CPU. It matters if, for instance, you need NUMA (allocated RAM per CPU, which speeds up computation).
Core - is the physical core a CPU has. Here it gets a bit confusing - within Proxmox the number of cores equals the number of threads, so if your CPU supports hyper-threading, the cores count is double the physical cores of the CPU. Within Proxmox settings, it tells how many threads per each socket should be allocated.
vCPU - by default, it's the product of sockets and cores per socket allocated. To cite the docs:
In Proxmox VE the maximal number of plugged CPUs is always cores * sockets. To start a VM with less than this total core count of CPUs you may use the vpus setting, it denotes how many vCPUs should be plugged in at VM start.
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